Do any languages / compilers utilize the x86 ENTER instruction with a nonzero nesting level?

Those familiar with x86 assembly programming are very used to the typical function prologue / epilogue:

push ebp ; Save old frame pointer.
mov  ebp, esp ; Point frame pointer to top-of-stack.
sub  esp, [size of local variables]
...
mov  esp, ebp ; Restore frame pointer and remove stack space for locals.
pop  ebp
ret

This same sequence of code can also be implemented with the ENTER and LEAVE instructions:

enter [size of local variables], 0
...
leave
ret

The ENTER instruction's second operand is the nesting level, which allows multiple parent frames to be accessed from the called function.

This is not used in C because there are no nested functions; local variables have only the scope of the function they're declared in. This construct does not exist (although sometimes I wish it did):

void func_a(void)
{
    int a1 = 7;

    void func_b(void)
    {
        printf("a1 = %d\n", a1);  /* a1 inherited from func_a() */
    }

    func_b();
}

Python however does have nested functions which behave this way:

def func_a():
    a1 = 7
    def func_b():
        print 'a1 = %d' % a1      # a1 inherited from func_a()
    func_b()

Of course Python code isn't translated directly to x86 machine code, and thus would be unable (unlikely?) to take advantage of this instruction.

Are there any languages which compile to x86 and provide nested functions? Are there compilers which will emit an ENTER instruction with a nonzero second operand?

Intel invested a nonzero amount of time/money into that nesting level operand, and basically I'm just curious if anyone uses it :-)

References:

• Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual Vol 2: Instruction Set Reference

• NASM Manual - ENTER: Create Stack Frame

enter is avoided in practice as it performs quite poorly - see the answers at https://stackoverflow.com/questions/5959890/enter-vs-push-ebp-mov-ebp-esp-sub-esp-imm-and-leave-vs-mov-esp-ebp. There are a bunch of x86 instructions that are obsolete but are still supported for backwards compatibility reasons - enter is one of those. (leave is OK though, and compilers are happy to emit it.)

Implementing nested functions in full generality as in Python is actually a considerably more interesting problem than simply selecting a few frame management instructions - search for 'closure conversion' and 'upwards/downwards funarg problem' and you'll find many interesting discussions.

Note that the x86 was originally designed as a Pascal machine, which is why there are instructions to support nested functions (enter, leave), the pascal calling convention in which the callee pops a known number of arguments from the stack (ret K), bounds checking (bound), and so on. Many of these operations are now obsolete.

As Iwillnotexist Idonotexist pointed out, GCC does support nested functions in C, using the exact syntax I've shown above.

However, it does not use ENTER instruction. Instead, variables which are used in nested functions are grouped together in the local variables area, and a pointer to this group is passed to the nested function. Interestingly, this "pointer to parent variables" is passed via a nonstandard mechanism: On x64 it is passed in r10, and on x86 (cdecl) it is passed in ecx, which is reserved for the this pointer in C++ (which doesn't support nested functions anyway).

#include <stdio.h>
void func_a(void)
{
    int a1 = 0x1001;
    int a2=2, a3=3, a4=4;
    int a5 = 0x1005;

    void func_b(int p1, int p2)
    {
        /* Use variables from func_a() */
        printf("a1=%d a5=%d\n", a1, a5);
    }
    func_b(1, 2);
}

int main(void)
{
    func_a();
    return 0;
}

Produces the following (snippet of) code when compiled for 64-bit:

00000000004004dc <func_b.2172>:
  4004dc:	push   rbp
  4004dd:	mov    rbp,rsp
  4004e0:	sub    rsp,0x10
  4004e4:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x4],edi
  4004e7:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x8],esi
  4004ea:	mov    rax,r10                    ; ptr to calling function "shared" vars
  4004ed:	mov    ecx,DWORD PTR [rax+0x4]
  4004f0:	mov    eax,DWORD PTR [rax]
  4004f2:	mov    edx,eax
  4004f4:	mov    esi,ecx
  4004f6:	mov    edi,0x400610
  4004fb:	mov    eax,0x0
  400500:	call   4003b0 <printf@plt>
  400505:	leave  
  400506:	ret    

0000000000400507 <func_a>:
  400507:	push   rbp
  400508:	mov    rbp,rsp
  40050b:	sub    rsp,0x20
  40050f:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1c],0x1001
  400516:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x4],0x2
  40051d:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x8],0x3
  400524:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0xc],0x4
  40052b:	mov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x20],0x1005
  400532:	lea    rax,[rbp-0x20]              ; Pass a, b to the nested function
  400536:	mov    r10,rax                     ; in r10 !
  400539:	mov    esi,0x2
  40053e:	mov    edi,0x1
  400543:	call   4004dc <func_b.2172>
  400548:	leave  
  400549:	ret  

_{Output from objdump --no-show-raw-insn -d -Mintel}

This would be equivalent to something more verbose like this:

struct func_a_ctx
{
    int a1, a5;
};

void func_b(struct func_a_ctx *ctx, int p1, int p2)
{
    /* Use variables from func_a() */
    printf("a1=%d a5=%d\n", ctx->a1, ctx->a5);
}

void func_a(void)
{
    int a2=2, a3=3, a4=4;
    struct func_a_ctx ctx = {
        .a1 = 0x1001,
        .a5 = 0x1005,
    };

    func_b(&ctx, 1, 2);
}

Our http://www.semanticdesigns.com/Products/PARLANSE">PARLANSE</a> compiler (for fine-grain parallel programs on SMP x86) has lexical scoping.

PARLANSE tries to generate many, many small parallel grains of computation, and then multiplexes them on top of threads (1 per CPU). In fact, the stack frames are heap allocated; we didn't want to pay the price of a "big stack" for each grain since we have many, and we didn't want to put a limit on how deep anything could recurse. Because of parallel forks, the stack is actually a cactus stack.

Each procedure, on entry, builds a lexical display to enable access to surrounding lexical scopes. We considered using the ENTER instruction, but decided against it for two reasons:

• As others have noted, it isn't particularly fast. MOV instructions do just as well.
• We observed that the display is often sparse, and tends to be denser on the lexically deeper side. Most internal helper functions do fine with access only to their direct lexical parent; you don't always need access to all of your parents. Sometimes none.

Consequently, the compiler figures out exactly which lexical scopes a function needs access to, and generates, in the function prolog where ENTER would go, just the MOV instructions to copy the part of the parent's display that is actually needed. That often turns out to be 1 or 2 pairs of moves.

So we win twice on performance over using ENTER.

IMHO, ENTER is now one of those legacy CISC instructions, which seemed like a good idea at the time it was defined, but get outperformed by RISC instruction sequences that even Intel x86 optimizes.

I did some instruction counting statistics on Linux boots using the Simics virtual platform, and found that ENTER was never used. However,there were quite a few LEAVE instructions in the mix. There was almost a 1-1 correlation between CALL and LEAVE. That would seem to corroborate the idea that ENTER is just slow and expensive, while LEAVE is pretty handy. This was measured on a 2.6-series kernel.

The same experiments on a 4.4-series and a 3.14-series kernel showed zero use of either LEAVE or ENTER. Presumably, the gcc code generation for the newer gccs used to compile these kernels has stopped emitting LEAVE (or the machine options are set differently).